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Stretching

Also called stretch training, static stretching, dynamic stretching, ballistic stretching, PNF stretching

Lengthening a muscle and holding it, or moving it through its range. How research defines the main types, what a stretch does to muscle, tendon and nerve, and what reviews found about range, strength, soreness and injury.

Region
Across the body
Updated
October 23, 2026
Reviewed
October 23, 2026 · how entries are checked

What it is

The main types

Research describes several types of stretching1:

  • Static stretching lengthens a muscle until a stretch or discomfort is felt, then holds that position for a set time1.
  • Dynamic stretching is a controlled movement through a joint’s range of motion1.
  • Ballistic stretching usually uses faster movements, with bouncing at the end of the range1. It is often counted as a form of dynamic stretching9.
  • PNF stretching (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, a stretching method that mixes held stretches with contractions of the muscle being stretched) has two major forms1.

In the contract-relax form of PNF, the muscle is stretched and held, then tightened isometrically, then stretched further1. An isometric contraction is one in which the muscle works but the joint does not move. The second form adds a contraction of the opposing muscle before the further stretch1. The PNF stretching page covers both forms in more depth.

Where it sits in a session

Warm-up practice has moved away from static or PNF stretching toward more dynamic stretching, a 2016 review notes2.

What it loads

A 2010 review found that muscle does lengthen while a stretch is applied, but only for a short time3. How much it lengthened, and for how long, depended on the stretch’s duration and type3.

Muscle, tendon and fascia

A 2025 meta-analysis of 65 studies in 1,542 adults found a single static stretching session slightly lowered overall stiffness5. A 2016 review proposed two sources for range gained in one session2. One is lower muscle and tendon stiffness; the other is nerve changes that raise stretch tolerance, how much stretch a person will accept2.

Single studies differ on whether the tendon changes11,12:

  • In 14 healthy volunteers, five 60-second calf stretches lowered gastrocnemius (calf muscle) stiffness for up to 5 minutes, but not tendon stiffness11.
  • In 30 healthy men, three 60-second quadriceps stretches lowered stiffness in the rectus femoris (a front-thigh muscle)12. Stiffness also fell in the upper patellar tendon straight afterwards12. The authors describe the drop as temporary12.

An observational study of front-thigh stretching suggested that the fascia lata may limit how much stretch people tolerate13. The fascia lata is the sheet of tough connective tissue that wraps the thigh muscles.

Nerves

Two single studies measured median nerve strain in arm and neck positions, not during a stretching routine14,15. One study used a cadaver, a body donated for study14. It used the upper limb neurodynamic test position, a set arm position that puts tension on the nerves of the arm14. There, bending the neck away from that arm raised strain on the median nerve (a main nerve of the forearm and hand) at the wrist14. In an ultrasound (a scan made with sound waves) study of healthy people, lowering the shoulder or bending the elbow unloaded the nerve15.

A 2024 review describes neural mobilisation as joint movements combined to slide or tension a nerve and the tissues around it16. One 2026 study uses “nerve flossing” as another name for nerve sliding, and the nerve flossing page covers it17.

Strength and power straight afterwards

A 2013 meta-analysis of 104 studies found static stretching before exercise lowered strength by about 5.4% on average18. Explosive performance fell by about 2.0%18. Power fell by about 1.9%, though that result was not statistically clear18. These losses were not related to age, gender or fitness, and were smallest with stretches of 45 seconds or less18.

A 2016 review found these average changes in performance, tested straight after each type of stretching2:

Average change in performance (%)Static-3.7 Dynamic1.3 PNF-4.4
Average change in performance (%). Bars start at zero; the table below gives each value with its source.
Type of stretchingAverage change in performance (%)
Static-3.72
Dynamic1.32
PNF-4.42

In that review, holds of 60 seconds or more per muscle group cost 4.6%, against 1.1% for shorter holds2. A 2012 review of 106 studies found no harmful effect from holds under 30 seconds, and no significant effect from 30 to 45 seconds19. Significant losses became likely at 60 seconds or more19. This link held whatever the task, type of contraction or muscle group19.

Other findings differ. The 2016 review found a moderate gain of 2.2% after static stretching when muscles were tested at longer lengths2. A 2021 review reports that static stretching of suitable duration inside a full warm-up had trivial effects on later performance20. Proposed causes of the loss involve both the nerves and the muscle, though that review says they are not yet fully defined20.

For dynamic stretching, the 2016 review found small-to-moderate gains when it was done within minutes of activity2. A 2018 review found positive effects on range and on later force, power, sprints and jumps10. That review also noted many studies found no change, or even worse performance10. It pointed to how long, how wide and how fast the movements were as possible reasons10. A 2012 review of PNF reports that done before exercise it reduced performance in maximal-effort exercise21.

How the body adapts

Range of motion after one session

The 47-study meta-analysis from 2023 found range rose on hamstring, calf and sit-and-reach tests, but not on an inner-thigh (hip adductor) test1. The sit-and-reach test is a flexibility test of how far a person can reach toward their toes while seated. The 2016 review found static, dynamic and PNF stretching all improved range, with the gain usually lasting under 30 minutes2.

Range of motion over weeks

A 2024 meta-analysis of 77 studies found stretch training raised range of motion with a moderate effect compared with controls22. A 2025 meta-analysis of 189 studies found a large effect of static stretching programmes on flexibility23. A 2026 meta-analysis of 79 trials in 3,287 people found moderate gains in lower-limb flexibility, though results varied widely between trials24.

A 2025 meta-analysis of 13 studies looked at range gained over 5 to 15 weeks25. After 2 to 6 weeks without stretching, range fell slightly but stayed above its starting level25. A 2021 meta-analysis of 11 trials in 452 people found no difference in range gained between strength training and stretching26. The studies in it differed widely26.

Reviews disagree on which type gains most. The 77-study meta-analysis from 2024 found PNF and static stretching gained more range than ballistic or dynamic stretching22. A 2018 review of 23 studies found static programmes gained more than ballistic or PNF programmes27.

How much stretching: the reviews disagree

These reviews reached different answers on how much stretching goes with how much range22,23,27:

  • The 77-study meta-analysis found no link with total stretch time or weekly frequency22.
  • The 2018 review found all types of stretching raised range27. It suggested at least 5 minutes a week seemed to matter for gains, and gains rose with more sessions a week27. Time per session had no significant effect27.
  • The 189-study meta-analysis from 2025 found gains peaked at 10 minutes a week, and weekly frequency made no difference23. Within one session, gains peaked at 4 minutes23.
  • A 2023 meta-analysis of 41 studies found larger gains with more repetitions and more time under stretch per session, and more in total28.

The same reviews differ on who gains most. The 189-study analysis found larger gains in adults who started with poor flexibility23. The 2026 analysis found no significant effect of starting flexibility, age or sex24. The 77-study analysis found women gained more range than men22.

Why range grows

A 2010 review concluded that most studies put the gains from one session, or a 3-to-8-week programme, down to changed sensation3. A 2018 meta-analysis of 26 programmes lasting 3 to 8 weeks found only trivial effects on muscle shape, muscle stiffness and tendon stiffness29. It concluded the changes seem mostly sensory29.

A 2023 meta-analysis of 10 studies found a moderate drop in muscle stiffness after 3 to 12 weeks of static stretching, compared with controls4. The 2025 analysis of 65 studies found stretch tolerance rose moderately after programmes5. Across programmes, range gains went with both lower stiffness and higher stretch tolerance5.

Muscle size and strength

A 2024 meta-analysis of 42 controlled studies in 1,318 people found small gains in maximal strength and muscle size after static stretching programmes30. A 2023 meta-analysis of 19 studies found no gain in muscle thickness overall, and only a trivial rise in fascicle length31. A fascicle is a bundle of muscle fibres lying side by side within a muscle. In that analysis, high-intensity stretching did increase muscle thickness31.

The 2025 analysis of 65 studies found neither sessions nor programmes changed fascicle length5. The 2023 meta-analysis of 41 studies found trivial-to-small gains in strength and power28. Older participants gained more strength and power28. Sedentary participants gained more strength than recreationally active ones28.

Children and older adults

A 2022 meta-analysis of 28 studies in 1,936 young people found stretching raised range in both children and adolescents32. Children gained more from higher volumes of stretching than from lower ones; adolescents gained the same from both32. In older adults, a 2024 meta-analysis of 6 studies found one static session lowered stiffness by a small amount, comparable to young adults33. A 2012 review of 22 studies in healthy adults over 65 found flexibility training may affect range34. Evidence on its link with measures of function conflicted34.

Soreness and injury

A 2011 Cochrane review looked at 12 studies of stretching before or after exercise in healthy adults35. That is a systematic review done to the Cochrane Collaboration’s published standards. A systematic review is a study that searches for all the research on a question in a set, checkable way and sums it up. Stretching gave no clinically important drop in delayed-onset muscle soreness, which starts hours to days after exercise35.

Injury findings differ by review8:

  • A 2004 review found stretching was not significantly linked with fewer total injuries in sport and fitness participants6. It judged the evidence too thin to support either keeping or stopping routine stretching around exercise6.
  • A 2008 review of 7 trials found moderate-to-strong evidence that routine static stretching does not lower overall injury rates8. The same review found early evidence it may lower muscle and tendon injuries8.
  • A 2014 analysis pooled 25 randomised trials (studies that assign people to groups by chance) in 26,610 people7. It found no benefit of stretching for sports injuries7. Strength training cut them to under a third7.
  • The 2016 review found no clear effect of static or PNF stretching on injuries, and no injury data for dynamic stretching2.

Connections

The library has pages on four single stretches, each with its own studies11,36:

  • Calf stretch: muscle stiffness fell but tendon stiffness did not, in 14 volunteers11.
  • Quadriceps stretch: in 50 people, peak torque fell only after 30- and 60-second holds, not 10- or 20-second ones37. Peak torque is the greatest turning force a muscle produces about a joint.
  • Upper trapezius stretch: in 22 healthy young adults, one self-stretching session lowered upper trapezius stiffness38.
  • Wrist flexor stretch: in 17 healthy men, holds of 180 seconds or more raised wrist range more than 30- or 60-second holds36.

The studies above measured effects on muscle, tendon and fascia during stretches11,13. They also measured nerve strain in arm and neck positions14,15. Stretching has been compared with resistance training for range and for injuries7,26. A meta-analysis of 41 trials in 1,670 active, healthy adults compared it with foam rolling for ankle range39. For active ankle range, foam rolling gave the largest short-term gain, while static stretching ranked best for keeping it long term39.

Stretching is used in

Stretching loads

Stretching is compared with

Stretching is related to

Sources

  1. Behm DG, Alizadeh S, Daneshjoo A, Anvar SH, Graham A, Zahiri A, et al. (2023). Acute Effects of Various Stretching Techniques on Range of Motion: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.. Sports medicine - open. doi:10.1186/s40798-023-00652-x PMID 37962709
  2. Behm DG, Blazevich AJ, Kay AD, McHugh M (2016). Acute effects of muscle stretching on physical performance, range of motion, and injury incidence in healthy active individuals: a systematic review.. Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism = Physiologie appliquee, nutrition et metabolisme. doi:10.1139/apnm-2015-0235 PMID 26642915
  3. Weppler CH, Magnusson SP (2010). Increasing muscle extensibility: a matter of increasing length or modifying sensation?. Physical therapy. doi:10.2522/ptj.20090012 PMID 20075147
  4. Takeuchi K, Nakamura M, Konrad A, Mizuno T (2023). Long-term static stretching can decrease muscle stiffness: A systematic review and meta-analysis.. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. doi:10.1111/sms.14402 PMID 37231582
  5. Ingram LA, Tomkinson GR, d'Unienville NMA, Gower B, Gleadhill S, Boyle T, Bennett H (2025). Mechanisms Underlying Range of Motion Improvements Following Acute and Chronic Static Stretching: A Systematic Review, Meta-analysis and Multivariate Meta-regression.. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). doi:10.1007/s40279-025-02204-7 PMID 40180774
  6. Thacker SB, Gilchrist J, Stroup DF, Kimsey CD (2004). The impact of stretching on sports injury risk: a systematic review of the literature.. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000117134.83018.f7 PMID 15076777
  7. Lauersen JB, Bertelsen DM, Andersen LB (2014). The effectiveness of exercise interventions to prevent sports injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.. British journal of sports medicine. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092538 PMID 24100287
  8. Small K, Mc Naughton L, Matthews M (2008). A systematic review into the efficacy of static stretching as part of a warm-up for the prevention of exercise-related injury.. Research in sports medicine (Print). doi:10.1080/15438620802310784 PMID 18785063
  9. Matsuo S, Takeuchi K, Nakamura M, Fukaya T, Oba K, Nakao G, Mizuno T (2025). Acute Effects of Dynamic and Ballistic Stretching on Flexibility: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.. Journal of sports science & medicine. doi:10.52082/jssm.2025.463 PMID 40469856
  10. Opplert J, Babault N (2018). Acute Effects of Dynamic Stretching on Muscle Flexibility and Performance: An Analysis of the Current Literature.. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0797-9 PMID 29063454
  11. Konrad A, Reiner MM, Thaller S, Tilp M (2019). The time course of muscle-tendon properties and function responses of a five-minute static stretching exercise.. European journal of sport science. doi:10.1080/17461391.2019.1580319 PMID 30821657
  12. Zhu Y, Feng Y, Huang F, Li Y, Wang W, Wang X, Cao X, Zhang Z (2022). Changes in stiffness of the specific regions of knee extensor mechanism after static stretching.. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology. doi:10.3389/fbioe.2022.958242 PMID 36046676
  13. Germain F, Mayet A, Perrin R (2024). What mechanical and proprioceptive structures are involved in quadriceps stretching? Why is it important for patella travel?. Journal of bodywork and movement therapies. doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2024.10.066 PMID 39593557
  14. Bueno-Gracia E, Pérez-Bellmunt A, Estébanez-de-Miguel E, López-de-Celis C, Caudevilla-Polo S, Shacklock M, González-Rueda V (2020). Effect of cervical contralateral lateral flexion on displacement and strain in the median nerve and flexor digitorum superficialis at the wrist during the ULNT1 - Cadaveric study.. Musculoskeletal science & practice. doi:10.1016/j.msksp.2020.102244 PMID 32906084
  15. Dilley A, Lynn B, Greening J, DeLeon N (2003). Quantitative in vivo studies of median nerve sliding in response to wrist, elbow, shoulder and neck movements.. Clinical biomechanics (Bristol, Avon). doi:10.1016/s0268-0033(03)00176-1 PMID 14580833
  16. Baptista FM, Nery E, Cruz EB, Afreixo V, Silva AG (2024). Effectiveness of Neural Mobilisation on Pain Intensity, Functional Status, and Physical Performance in Adults with Musculoskeletal Pain - A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.. Clinical Rehabilitation. doi:10.1177/02692155231215216 PMID 37990512
  17. Hitier M, Vieira DCL, Cometti C, Durigan JLQ, Babault N (2026). Technique-specific reduction of sciatic nerve stiffness through neurodynamic stretches at submaximal and maximal intensity in asymptomatic individuals.. European journal of applied physiology. doi:10.1007/s00421-026-06320-8 PMID 42371082
  18. Simic L, Sarabon N, Markovic G (2013). Does pre-exercise static stretching inhibit maximal muscular performance? A meta-analytical review.. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01444.x PMID 22316148
  19. Kay AD, Blazevich AJ (2012). Effect of Acute Static Stretch on Maximal Muscle Performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e318225cb27 PMID 21659901
  20. Behm DG, Kay AD, Trajano GS, Blazevich AJ (2021). Mechanisms underlying performance impairments following prolonged static stretching without a comprehensive warm-up.. European journal of applied physiology. doi:10.1007/s00421-020-04538-8 PMID 33175242
  21. Hindle KB, Whitcomb TJ, Briggs WO, Hong J (2012). Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF): Its Mechanisms and Effects on Range of Motion and Muscular Function.. Journal of human kinetics. doi:10.2478/v10078-012-0011-y PMID 23487249
  22. Konrad A, Alizadeh S, Daneshjoo A, Anvar SH, Graham A, Zahiri A, et al. (2024). Chronic effects of stretching on range of motion with consideration of potential moderating variables: A systematic review with meta-analysis.. Journal of sport and health science. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2023.06.002 PMID 37301370
  23. Ingram LA, Tomkinson GR, d'Unienville NMA, Gower B, Gleadhill S, Boyle T, Bennett H (2025). Optimising the Dose of Static Stretching to Improve Flexibility: A Systematic Review, Meta-analysis and Multivariate Meta-regression.. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). doi:10.1007/s40279-024-02143-9 PMID 39614059
  24. Oba K, Matsuo S, Nakamura M, Nakao G, Fukaya T, Mizuno T, Takeuchi K (2026). Moderating Effects of Individual Characteristics and the Target Lower Limb Muscle Group on Flexibility Adaptations to Chronic Static Stretching in Healthy Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.. Sports medicine - open. doi:10.1186/s40798-026-01066-1 PMID 42435098
  25. Konrad A, Warneke K, Donti O, Panidi I, Gaspari V, Nakamura M, Thomas E, Bogdanis GC (2025). Detraining Effects Following Chronic Stretching Training on Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.. Sports medicine - open. doi:10.1186/s40798-025-00935-5 PMID 41269471
  26. Afonso J, Ramirez-Campillo R, Moscão J, Rocha T, Zacca R, Martins A, et al. (2021). Strength Training versus Stretching for Improving Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland). doi:10.3390/healthcare9040427 PMID 33917036
  27. Thomas E, Bianco A, Paoli A, Palma A (2018). The Relation Between Stretching Typology and Stretching Duration: The Effects on Range of Motion.. International journal of sports medicine. doi:10.1055/s-0044-101146 PMID 29506306
  28. Arntz F, Markov A, Behm DG, Behrens M, Negra Y, Nakamura M, Moran J, Chaabene H (2023). Chronic Effects of Static Stretching Exercises on Muscle Strength and Power in Healthy Individuals Across the Lifespan: A Systematic Review with Multi-level Meta-analysis.. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). doi:10.1007/s40279-022-01806-9 PMID 36719536
  29. Freitas SR, Mendes B, Le Sant G, Andrade RJ, Nordez A, Milanovic Z (2018). Can chronic stretching change the muscle-tendon mechanical properties? A review.. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. doi:10.1111/sms.12957 PMID 28801950
  30. Warneke K, Lohmann LH, Behm DG, Wirth K, Keiner M, Schiemann S, Wilke J (2024). Effects of Chronic Static Stretching on Maximal Strength and Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Meta-Regression.. Sports medicine - open. doi:10.1186/s40798-024-00706-8 PMID 38637473
  31. Panidi I, Donti O, Konrad A, Dinas PC, Terzis G, Mouratidis A, et al. (2023). Muscle Architecture Adaptations to Static Stretching Training: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.. Sports medicine - open. doi:10.1186/s40798-023-00591-7 PMID 37318696
  32. Donti O, Konrad A, Panidi I, Dinas PC, Bogdanis GC (2022). Is There a "Window of Opportunity" for Flexibility Development in Youth? A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis.. Sports medicine - open. doi:10.1186/s40798-022-00476-1 PMID 35792993
  33. Nakamura M, Takeuchi K, Fukaya T, Nakao G, Konrad A, Mizuno T (2024). Acute effects of static stretching on passive stiffness in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.. Archives of gerontology and geriatrics. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2023.105256 PMID 37951029
  34. Stathokostas L, Little RM, Vandervoort AA, Paterson DH (2012). Flexibility training and functional ability in older adults: a systematic review.. Journal of aging research. doi:10.1155/2012/306818 PMID 23209904
  35. Herbert RD, de Noronha M, Kamper SJ (2011). Stretching to prevent or reduce muscle soreness after exercise.. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004577.pub3 PMID 21735398
  36. Iwata M, Matsuo S, Ito K, Fukaya T, Hatano G, Miyazaki M, Tsuchida W, Ota H, Noritake K, Asai Y (2026). Static stretching duration-dependent changes in flexibility, muscle oxygen saturation, and blood flow in the forearm flexors.. Scientific reports. doi:10.1038/s41598-026-60707-3 PMID 42414377
  37. Siatras TA, Mittas VP, Mameletzi DN, Vamvakoudis EA (2008). The duration of the inhibitory effects with static stretching on quadriceps peak torque production.. Journal of strength and conditioning research. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e31815f970c PMID 18296954
  38. Yoshimura M, Taniguchi T, Yoshitomi T, Hashimoto Y (2026). Investigation of Skin Circulation Hemodynamics Using Skin Laser Speckle Flowgraphy After Trapezius Muscle Self-Stretching.. Muscles. doi:10.3390/muscles5020031 PMID 42201134
  39. Park JM, Lee KW, Yoon SY, Kim YW, Lee SC (2026). Flexibility-enhancing Interventions for Ankle Range of Motion: A Network Meta-analysis.. International journal of sports medicine. doi:10.1055/a-2876-9237 PMID 42134336

Every source the library cites

Changes

  • Linked to the new PNF stretching and nerve flossing pages.
  • First published.